Leadership Library - Organizational Development
Much
of the content of the following pages is based on the University
of Michigan Student Organizational Development Center's "Resources
for Leadership and Organizational Development", copyright 1988.
Many thanks to our colleagues for sharing their publication
materials.
As a group or organization forms, it
goes through certain predictable stages, progressing from a loose collection of
individuals to a cohesive group working together effectively for a common cause.
Two dimensions are present in any group and influence its development. These are
task functions and personal relations.
FOUR STAGES OF GROUP DEVELOPMENT
Stage I
Personal relations are characterized by dependency on the leader to provide structure.
Major task functions concern the orientation of group members to the work they
are being asked to do. The issues have to be specified. Common behavior at this
point includes questioning why we are here, what we are supposed to do, how we
are going to get it done, and what our goals are. Possible Course of Action: The
leader should provide as much structure as possible; team building is important
here.
Stage II
Personal relations: Conflict and confrontation among group members; who is responsible
for what; what are going to be the work rules; what are going to be the limits;
what is going to be the reward system; what are going to be the criteria? The
variety of organizational concerns that emerge reflect conflict over leadership
structure, power, and authority. It is important that strategies are implemented
to help members move constructively from conflict toward renewed commitment to
the group. If this does not happen, members may isolate or even remove themselves
from the group during this phase. Possible Courses of Action: Leader may need
to provide clarification or justification to group members; leader may also spend
time with individual members to help them clarify their feelings about group involvement.
Stage III
Personal relations are marked by cohesion; people begin to experience a feeling
of groupness. They begin sharing ideas, feelings, giving feedback to each other,
soliciting feedback, exploring actions related to the task and sharing information
related to the task. This becomes a period during which people feel good about
being a part of a group, and there is a brief abandonment of the task and a period
of play-- the enjoyment of the cohesion that is being experienced. Possible Courses
of Action: Leader should identify the transition and capitalize on it; members
are ready to work hard, so the leader must provide opportunities for this to occur.
Stage IV
Interdependence is achieved by group members; members can work singly, in any
sub- groupings, or as a total unit. They are highly task and people oriented.
Group's tasks are well defined, there is high commitment to common activity and
support for experimentation with solving problems. A collective, interdependent
organism is the final outcome of the process of group development. Possible Courses
of Action: Leader can take a less active role and allow the group considerable
autonomy. Member's interdependence, flexible approaches to task accomplishment,
commitment to self-assessment and appropriate adjustment or adaptation readily
occurs.
Reference: Sara Boatman, Group Development; Pfeiffer/Jones
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People join organizations for many reasons.
They want to get involved; meet people and make new friends; explore interests;
develop skills; and have fun. Groups need new members because they bring new ideas
and talents, in addition to replacing old members.
With over 100 existing groups on campus, as well as countless newly formed organizations,
it is vital that an organization has a well conceived and executed recruitment
and retention plan. This handout is designed to assist you in the development
of such a plan.
First, it is important that both the leadership and membership know and understand
your organization. Have a meeting to review and discuss your organizational goals
and objectives. Are they still accurate? Is it time to update them? Where would
the group like to be in six months? A year? During this "organizational housekeeping"
process, a certain theme or direction should become clear. What is this? What
types of people do you need to help the group succeed? Try to develop a member
profile. Who would you like to have join? Who would compliment your current membership?
Now that you know the types of people you are interested in, your next step is
to set some recruitment goals. How many new members can your organization reasonably
assimilate into the group? Will you allow people to join at any time or only during
a pre-designated recruitment period? Will you hold a mass meeting or is membership
by invitation only? When designing your recruitment strategy keep in mind your
member profile. What place do these prospective members most likely frequent?
Do they have special interests? What kind of publicity would attract their attention?
But most of all, try to think back to when you first became involved. What attracted
you? How were you recruited? If you weren't, how did you hear about the group?
Why have you stayed involved?
Get everyone involved. Have your current members identify people they know who
might want to get involved and personally invite them to attend a meeting. Word-of-mouth
is the best and least expensive type of publicity you can use. Talk about your
group. Tell people what you have to offer them. Ask them about themselves (and
really listen). Tell them how the organization can benefit from someone like them.
Let them know how their talents, skills and interests would help the organization.
Recruitment campaigns need to have a visual element as well. Have those members
with "artistic talents" or creative computer knowledge work on your posters, flyers,
banners, etc. Be creative. Your publicity can be effective only if it's noticed.
Many groups find it beneficial to have a special welcoming meeting or ceremony
for their new members. Group participation in some form of official initiation
process is one way to make your members feel wanted, needed and appreciated. But
remember, hazing activities are not beneficial to your organization's growth and
are illegal. It helps to form a unique and memorable bond between old and new
members. This bonding is hard to break and will help increase your retention rate.
However you choose to welcome your new members it is important to include some
form of group orientation program. Many groups skip this and begin by getting
new members immediately involved in group projects. Although new member involvement
is essential, it is equally important to orient them to your group's goals and
objectives, organizational structure, rules and norms. This de-mystifies the group
and helps the members feel more comfortable with the group and understand its
processes. Proper orientation leads to better understanding, more commitment,
and less frustration.
After you've successfully completed your recruitment and orientation, spend time
getting to know your membership and let them get to know you, too. Don't forget
your old members either; without them you wouldn't have had a group for your new
members to join. Talk to all new members about their skills, interests and previous
experiences. Once you have this information, it will be easy to get them involved
in your group's projects. To be sure that their first organizational experience
is a positive one, assign new members tasks that are well within their skill level
and that they can successfully accomplish. Start them off slowly, and let them
work their way up.
Finally, allow your new members time to get involved and comfortable with the
group. After a semester, have them participate in a group evaluation process.
Go over your organizational goals and objectives and look at your plans for the
future. Ask for their feedback and input. It is a known fact that people are more
committed and motivated if they feel that they have a stake in what is going on.
Have them help to shape the organization's future.
Above all have fun together. Make time to socialize and celebrate your achievements.
Pizza parties are good. If all you do as a group is work, it will become a burden
to participate and your members will quickly lose interest. After all, what is
an organization without members? What good is a recruitment campaign if no one
stays?
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Developing and conducting an organization recruitment campaign is very important.
Yet, as we all know, retaining these new members is another matter entirely. All
too frequently groups skip any form of orientation and just place their new recruits
directly on committees or organizational projects. Although involvement is crucial
to the longevity of the group, understanding the organization and its goals and
objectives, structure, norms and taboos is equally important. By taking the time
to orient new members to the privileges and responsibilities of membership, you
create a more educated membership - people who can and will make significant contributions
to the organization.
A SUCCESSFUL ORGANIZATIONAL ORIENTATION PROGRAM SHOULD INCLUDE:
- The rights and responsibilities
of members
- Organizational governance, operating
policies and procedures
- Organizational history, traditions
and programs
- Assimilation of new members into
the organization
- An overview of campus services,
activities and programs for student organizations
- Information about any support
groups or affiliations the group may have
When planning your orientation program
keep this word in mind: AIM
Acquaint Inform Motivate
Acquaint
The purpose of any new member orientation program is to acquaint your recruits
with both the organization and each other. Knowing the ins and outs of the group
is only one aspect of being in an organization. It is important to note that people
join groups for many reasons: they want to get involved, learn new skills, make
friends and have a good time. For this reason it is important to structure time
for the members to get to know each other and to develop personal relationships
and commitments. The following is an often used get-acquainted exercise:
- Pair off with someone you don't
know.
- On a sheet of paper, write down
ten words of phrases that describe yourself.
- Take five minutes to tell your
partner about yourself--do not go over the list.
- After you've talked to your partner,
write down five words or phrases to describe him or her.
- Swap lists and compare yours
with the one your partner made of you.
- Gather into a group of six or
more and introduce your partner to the rest of the group.
Try to include as much information as
you can recall.
Officers should be included in this exercise. When all groups have finished, have
the officers take time to tell the entire group about themselves; be sure they
include their job descriptions.
Inform
This section of the orientation process should cover the organization's history,
purpose and structure. If there are written records, give everyone a copy. Be
sure to include organizational charts, officer job descriptions, and a membership
list. Have the new members included on this list!
If you do not have a written history, have the group write one. To do so, place
newsprint on the wall and choose a scribe. Next, ask the membership to tell what
they know about the organization: how the group was formed, when and where it
started, what past members were like, the programs and/or services they offered,
how the organization was structured, and how it has evolved over the years. Go
back as far as you can. When recording this information be creative and think
up interesting chapter titles.
It is important to remember that this is an oral history and that you are recording
people's perceptions about the group. These may, in fact, not be totally accurate.
However, they are important perceptions. They color how people, both members and
non-members, think and feel about the group. This collective writing of your group's
history also provides an opportunity for the leadership to dispel any myths and
rumors that may be brought up.
Motivate
Get your members, returning and newly recruited, to be excited about the group.
Provide time for them to meet each other to share ideas and expectations. Below
is a good exercise designed to accomplish that goal.
Have the group break into groups of old and new to discuss the following:
Outgoing Members
- If you had your year to do over
again how would you do it differently?
- What advice would you offer to
the new members?
- What accomplishment(s) are you
most proud of?
New Members
- What would you like this organization
to mean to you one year from now?
- What would you like to ask the
old members?
- What goals would you like to accomplish
this year?
- What problems do you anticipate
and how would you solve them?
Spend at least 15 minutes in your group discussing these questions. When time
is up, gather together as one group and report what you discussed. It is usually
most effective to have the outgoing members report first, followed by the new
members.
It is also important to find out what the members' interests are and what skills
they bring to the group. Using this information, try to give them tasks which
will successfully use their talents and give them a reason to be committed. Whenever
possible recognize members' accomplishments both publicly and privately.
By including the above suggestions in your new member orientation program you
will discover that you have built group cohesion. By following these tips you
will ensure: new members know the organization and are able to articulate purpose
members understand their rights and responsibilities to themselves and the organization
Leadership and Discipline
The purpose of organization education is better members, who make a better organization!
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Ice breakers and other getting-acquainted
exercises are important as groups come together again each year and especially
when bringing in new members. The following are some reasons for using ice-breakers
as well as some easily implemented examples.
They can be excellent devices to help people feel more comfortable with themselves
and with others and feel more "at home" in a group.
They break up the "cliques," invite people to form random groupings, and help
individuals meet others in a non-threatening and fun way.
They can be used to set a tone for the time a group will be together, will encourage
people to feel "safe" and hopefully will evoke lots of laughter in releasing tension.
EXAMPLES OF ICEBREAKERS
Human scavenger hunt:
Find someone who:
- owns cross-country skis
- has been to Europe
- wears contacts
Hometown
Members tell where they are from and information about their hometown
Name games
Why or how the member got his/her name
Tell name and hobby; members try to memorize information
The human knot
Form a circle by placing hands in the middle of the circle, grab someone else's
hands (other than the person's on either side of you), and without letting go,
try to untangle the "knot."
EXAMPLES OF GETTING ACQUAINTED EXERCISES:
Dyads
Members get into groups of two and find out information about each other. Possible
questions to use:
- Who do you think is the most important
person who has lived in the past 100 years?
- What is the best movie you have
seen recently?
- What is the title of the last
book you have read?
- If you could be any animal other
than human, what would you be?
- If you could travel to any place
in the world, where would you go?
- What is your favorite sport?
- One adjective to describe me
is...
- The emotion I find most difficult
to control is...
Crest or Coat of Arms
Members create their own "Coat of Arms" by filling in information about themselves
using words or drawings.
Information can include:
- Hobbies
- Hometown
- Major
- Favorite Emotion
- Family Members
- Five or Ten Year Goals
Forced Choice
Ask members to stand in the middle of the room and have them move to either side
to indicate their choice:
- More like a Cadillac or a Volkswagen?
- More of a saver or a spender?
- More like New York or Colorado?
- More yes or no?
- More like a student or a teacher?
- More here or there?
- More like the present or the future?
- More like a file cabinet or a
liquor cabinet?
- More intuitive or rational?
- More like a tortoise or a hare?
- More like an electric typewriter
or a quill pen?
- More like a roller skate or a
pogo stick?
- More like a babbling brook or
a placid lake?
- More like a gourmet restaurant
or a McDonald's?
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WHAT IS TEAM BUILDING?
Your organization is ready to roll; your officers are enthusiastic about beginning
the year, and your returning and newly recruited members are eager to contribute.
There are two important steps to take before you just plunge into the year's activities
- building your group into a team and determining your goals for the year.
"Team Building" is the process of forming several (or many) diverse individuals
into a "team," a group that has several things in common:
- Agreement on a common vision
of what they are working toward as a group (goals).
- Agreement on what they are able
to accomplish as a group (objectives).
- Agreement on the specific roles
in which each person will be working to accomplish their objectives.
- Open information flow and commitment
to other group members.
In order for your team to work together
effectively, they need to feel comfortable around each other. The more they know
and appreciate each other as people as well as contributors to the organization,
the better they'll work together.
Much of this information and appreciation will evolve naturally over time, but
the school year is so short, that in order to prevent unnecessary misunderstandings
or difficulties, it is very helpful to speed up this process. And it's easy to
do!
HOW TO BUILD A TEAM
One of the most efficient and effective ways to "do team building" is to set aside
a two or three hour block of time very early in the year. A comfortable, informal
environment works best - someone's living room, a carpeted meeting room where
you can all sit on the floor, a quiet lounge with comfortable furniture. Make
team building your only agenda item.
Your task is to share with each other information about who you are, what you
think about the organization, how you expect you'll fit in. The following questions
are examples of those you can ask to start the discussion and keep it on track.
Make sure each person answers every question. The point is to listen to each other.
- Why were you interested in becoming
an officer/member?
- What do you expect to learn from
this experience?
- What is the biggest asset you
bring to this organization?
- What is your biggest fear about
what could happen in the next semester/year?
- What is your own perception of
yourself as a leader/member? Include costs and benefits - to yourself and
to the organization.
- What did you feel best about
last semester/year? What did you feel worst about?
- Share any special interest areas,
skills, areas of expertise. Also share areas you feel weak in and would like
information about, support or training in.
- What do you want to see this
organization do?
WHEN
While team building is essential to newly formed groups or an organization with
a large number of new members, there are other times it can be effective as well.
You might find it helpful to use team building techniques when:
- members seem bored or irritable
- members appear to be going off
in different directions or drifting away from the group
- there is a great deal of conflict
or "infighting"
- members have been apart for a
while, i.e., breaks, vacations, etc.
- you want to take a break from
the normal routine or boost team spirit
TEAM BUILDING EXERCISES WHICH
CAN BE USED ANYTIME:
Self-disclosure/Relationship Building - helps break down barriers and allows members
to get to know one another on a more "intimate" level. Very appropriate for groups
where people will be working closely together and/or for groups where members
will be together for a long period of time.
Trust - these exercises generally rely on some form of physical contact but have
the added element of requiring participants to trust one another in order to complete
the activity. Appropriate in most any group, but be careful that if someone is
really afraid that they are not pressured into participating.
-
Trust Walks: Members take turns being blindfolded and led by another on a short
walk.
-
Trust Falls: Members stand on a raised platform (a chair will suffice) and fall
backwards into the arms of the other members. Make sure there are plenty of members
available to catch the person to avoid possible injury!
-
Physical - helps eliminate tension and distance between people, makes them more
relaxed and comfortable with one another. Appropriate in most groups, but beware
of individual reactions to touching/being touched.
-
Human Knot: Members stand in a circle and extend their right hands into the middle
and clasp the hand of another. Repeat the process using the left hand. Untangle
the knot without unclasping hands.
Cooperation - helps people learn to work together. These exercises can give an
indication about the roles members will play in group situations, e.g., thinker,
leader, organizer, dominator, follower, encourager. Appropriate in any group,
particularly if tasks demand teamwork.
-
Perfect Square: Squares of construction paper of different colors are cut into
odd shapes. Members each take a piece and then work with others with pieces of
like color to form a perfect square. This exercise is often done in silence with
no talking permitted.
Group Tasks - everyday tasks that must be accomplished by the group are done rather
than contrived activities. This is a superb method for increasing member involvement
and commitment in any group. Oftentimes necessary for a group to remain a "group."
-
Brainstorming: Members are asked to contribute ideas regarding a specific problem/question
facing the group. Ideas are recorded without judgment.
-
Group Goal-Setting: Members participate in reviewing and setting the group's goals
and objectives. People are more committed to a course of action they helped to
choose.
-
Other: Parties, picnics or meals, and retreats (field trips, etc.) done together
as a group help to break the monotony of regular meetings and provide an opportunity
for members to get back in touch with each other on a social basis. Appropriate
anytime in any group but particularly helpful when motivation is lacking, morale
is low, or members are drifting apart.
After you have completed your team building exercise, it is necessary to spend
time as a group discussing this experience. Part of any team building process
is sharing what has been learned and experienced; what members liked and dislike;
and, most importantly, how they felt while participating. Team building is hindered
if inadequate time is allotted for discussion, or if individual feelings surface
and are not dealt with.
See also the sections:
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Is your group stumped for new ideas?
Do you do the same activities the same old way year after year? Do the leaders
and maybe just a few others seem to do all the talking?
Brainstorming may be just the technique to rejuvenate your organization and get
everyone excited and involved. The purpose of this method is to get out as many
ideas as possible - the more you have to choose from, the better your final choice
will be! You can use brainstorming for almost anything: program ideas, themes,
slogans, publicity, group goals and problem-solving.
The rules for brainstorming are deceptively simple - be sure the group understands
them and someone has the job of making sure they're followed.
FIRST OF ALL ... SET THE STAGE ...
Set a time limit - 10 to 20 minutes, depending upon the size of your group and
the complexity of the issue.
The best group size is 3 - 15 people. If you have more, break into two or more
groups and brainstorm simultaneously.
The question of issue must be one to which all participants can speak. Focus on
only one issue.
Record all responses on a blackboard or big sheets of newsprint so everyone can
see them; don't record the name of the person suggesting. Record only key words
and phrases, not word for word.
SECONDLY ... EXPLAIN (AND POSSIBLY POST) THE FOLLOWING "RULES" ...
- Do not discuss ideas
- Don't criticize, praise, or judge
- Be spontaneous - no hand-raising,
just call out
- Repetitions are okay
- Quantity counts
- Build on each other's ideas -
"hitch-hiking" or "piggy-backing" is encouraged
- Enjoy the silences - often the
best ideas come out of them
- It's okay to be outrageous, even
silly
THIRDLY ... MAKE GOOD USE OF
YOUR MEMBERS' CREATIVITY ...
- If several groups brainstormed
the same idea, put the lists on the wall and let everyone read each other's
work
- Group ideas into related categories
for review
- Decide which ideas are most promising
and which can be eliminated (can be done by group putting pluses and minuses
by items)
- Rank in order of the most promising
- Select those with greatest potential
and high-ranking priority for either implementation or refinement by a committee.
- Be sure to utilize the ideas generated.
It's extremely demoralizing for a group to invest its time, energy and creativity
and have its ideas disappear. Seeing your idea come to fruition, however,
is extremely rewarding.
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How often has your organization spun
its wheels for weeks, wondering in which direction to go first; what you were
going to be about this year? On the other hand, how often has your organization
been clear about its goals, but does not seem to get anywhere anyway? How often
does it never know who is supposed to be doing what in order to achieve these
goals? There is one way to avoid both pitfalls - follow this goal setting and
action planning process.
There are three levels of defining your organization's priorities:
Purpose - a broad, general statement that tells why your organization exists;
usually doesn't change from year to year, and is often the first statement in
your constitution.
Goals - statements describing what your organization wishes to accomplish, stemming
from your purpose. Goals are the ends toward which your efforts will be directed,
and often change from semester to semester or year to year, depending on the nature
of the group.
Objectives - descriptions of exactly what is to be done, derived from the goals.
Clear specific statements of measurable tasks that will be accomplished as steps
toward reaching your goals. They are short term and have deadlines.
Why Set Goals?
- Goals help define your organization
- Goals give direction and help
avoid chaos
- Goals can help motivate members
by clarifying and communicating what the organization is striving for
- Goals are time savers by helping
members and leaders become aware of problems in time to develop solutions
- Goals help the organization plan
ahead and be prepared
- Goals are a basis of recognizing
accomplishments and realizing your successes; they are a basis for recognition
and celebration
Setting Goals Together
Set your goals as a group. This creates many positive results because people will
support and be responsible for what they help create. You can expect:
- Greater motivation and commitment to achieving goals among officers and members
- Clearer understanding of the goals and the rationale for selecting them
- Better goals because with everyone's ideas and opinions considered, your goals
will
represent a group consensus rather than one person's opinion
Steps for Setting Goals and Objectives:
- Brainstorm potential goals as
a group
- Choose from the brainstormed
list those you want to work on
- Prioritize as a group
- Determine objectives for each
goal and plans of action for each objective (remember, there can be several
objectives for each goal)
- Move into action; follow through
(many groups fail to do this step and their goals never are achieved)
- Evaluate your progress on a regular
basis (remember, circumstances change, so be flexible and allow your objectives
to change with them)
DEVELOPING AN ACTION PLAN
What is to be done (your objective)?
How will it be accomplished?
What are your resources in terms of people, money, materials?
Who is responsible for completing each task?
When will each be accomplished?
What is the deadline?
How will you know when it is accomplished?
How will you measure the results?
Action Plan Example:
GOAL
To improve membership recruitment, retention and involvement
AN OBJECTIVE
To develop a committee structure whose purpose is to increase member involvement
to at least 40% by next term
HOW
Brainstorm ideas to increase member involvement. Go over this list and weed out
all those ideas that are impractical or impossible to do. Discuss this edited
list with the executive board/leadership. Determine which will be done and delegate
the final process of setting up this system to one or two executive officers.
RESOURCES
Members, executive officers, student life staff, student activities committee,
handouts on recruitment, motivation, delegation
DEADLINES
Who: Executive board and consultants
When: by next term (try to set up a date if possible)
RESULTS
Acceptable--membership involvement increases by 40-70%
Unacceptable--membership involvement increases by less that 40%
Better Than Expected--membership involvement increases by more than 70%
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Student organization members and leaders
make decisions in the group all the time. The decision-making process could be
stressful because some people see it as a form of power struggle, some cannot
bear the idea of losing an argument, and some simply do not like to make decisions.
Decisions are an important part of group life, and you may wonder how your group
can improve in this area. This section is designed to help you.
There are several types of group decisions:
- UNILATERAL -- a decision made
by one person, often the nominal leader, without consultation with other group
members. At times, it can be appropriate; if it is repeated and inappropriate,
these decisions usually carry a very low group commitment.
- HANDCLASP -- decisions made by
two members. One suggests, the other endorses and carries it through without
adequate discussion or group consideration. This form has high commitment
for the two who made it, but generally not for the others.
- CLIQUE -- similar to the Handclasp
but with more people involved. This type usually occurs when a close sub-group
decides what is good for the rest of the group. Repeated clique decisions
cause splintering of the group and low commitment.
- BAITING -- a technique that reduces
discussions around decisions. A person will say, "Now we are all agreed...,
right?!" and only the very brave will speak up. This usually suppresses obvious
dissension and lowers group commitment.
- MAJORITY RULE -- a popular way
of making decisions. However, if the outcome of a secret ballot vote would
produce any surprises, it is not a good time to make majority rule decisions.
What happens is that a sizable segment of the group may feel devalued and
lose their commitment to the decisions on which they "lose" the vote.
- CONSENSUS -- similar to Majority
Rule, but everyone knows that what they think and value is being considered
by all, and there will be no surprises if you vote. Each person will agree
that, under the circumstances, which may not be ideal, the decision made is
a fair and workable one and they can live with it and support it.
You may be able to think of and classify
other types of decisions. Any type may prove effective under a given set of circumstances.
However, it is obvious that the first five approaches are likely to reinforce
the powerful in the group and create tension. Morale and membership commitment
can be lowered if these are the usual methods of making organizational decisions.
Since members possess the essential ingredients for the solution of all problems,
group decisions should be based on all members' input. Certainly, if there are
decisions that only take a few people to make, it may not be necessary to involve
an entire group. We recommend that you consider the following points about the
assets and liabilities of consensus decisions.
ASSETS OF GROUP CONSENSUS APPROACH:
- Greater sum total of knowledge and information
- Greater number of approaches to a problem
- Participation in problem solving increases acceptance -- A low-quality solution
that has wide acceptance can be more effective than a higher-quality solution
that lacks acceptance.
- Better comprehension of the decision -- The chances for communication failures
are greatly reduced when the individuals who must work together in executing the
decision have participated in making it.
LIABILITIES OF GROUP CONSENSUS APPROACH:
- Social Pressure - Minority opinions in groups can have little influence on the
solution reached, even when these opinions are correct ones. Reaching agreement
in a group often is confused with finding the "right answer."
- Individual Domination - Skilled manipulators or dominant individuals can emerge
and capture more than their share of influence on the outcome.
- Conflicting Secondary Goal - People may aim at winning the argument at the cost
of finding the best answer.
- Risk Taking - The risk of not getting their own way can prevent people from fully
participating in the discussion.
- Time - Listening and considering all points of view in order to arrive at the
best solution takes time.
FACTORS THAT SERVE AS ASSETS OR LIABILITIES, DEPENDING LARGELY UPON
THE SKILL OF THE DISCUSSION LEADER:
- Disagreement can serve either
to create hard feelings among members or lead to a resolution of conflict
and hence to an innovative solution.
- Conflicting individual interests
vs. mutual interests
- More time may be needed to reach
consensus.
- Who has the greatest influence
and who willingly changes their opinions can reinforce the existing power
structure and stifle future member input and cooperation.
Having understood the advantages and
possible problems of the consensus approach, you are encouraged to use this method
to make decisions whenever possible. An operational way to defining a consensus
decision is where every member of the group can say, "Well, that may not be exactly
how I would have done it, but I can live with it and support it."
GROUP CONSENSUS GUIDELINES
Effectiveness in communication is of paramount importance in the consensus decision
making process. You can enhance your group communication by paying attention to
the following "DO's and DON'Ts."
DO
Listen, not only to the words, but to the rationale being offered. Pursue your
point and be persistent if you have good information. Manage your time effectively,
relative to the number of decisions that are being made. Involve all team members
to ensure use of their knowledge and experience. Strive for the best answer. Thinking
in cause-and-effect terms avoids dealing only with symptoms.
DON'T
- Don't argue for the sake of winning your point. You may learn something by remaining
open-minded.
- Don't give up on your conclusion simply to avoid conflict. Let objective reasons
or sound information prevail.
- Don't allow the group to get hung up on a specific item - move on and come back
later.
- Don't compete by assuming that someone must win and someone must lose. Look for
the best alternative.
- Don't resort to voting. This tends to split the group into winners and loser.
THE LEADER'S ROLE
This approach to group decision making
places the leader in a particular role in which s/he must cease to contribute,
avoid evaluation, and refrain from thinking about solutions or group products.
Instead s/he must concentrate on the group process by assuming responsibility
for accurate communication between members.
The ways decisions are made testify to the degree of effectiveness of a group.
Here is a list of characteristics of effective and ineffective groups:
EFFECTIVE GROUPS
Generate more ideas than individuals generate independently have a high level
of participation develop a climate where members can be relaxed, open, and direct
are task-oriented
INEFFECTIVE GROUPS
- pool ignorance and misinformation
- eject non-conforming members
- force members to comply or compromise
- engage in "group-think" (premature
acceptance of an alternative to preserve good feelings within the group)
- take action because they can't
think of any reason not to
EFFECTIVE GROUP MEMBERS
- defer to members who they are
certain have the facts
- form loyalties to their own group
- encourage and support other group
members
- mediate differences in the group
INEFFECTIVE GROUP MEMBERS
- give in on items they are sure
of
- oppose or block decisions without
cause
- dominate discussions
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Conflict is inevitable in any interpersonal
relationship or among members of any group. While we encounter conflict in many
of our life situations, we often lack confidence or a vision of what's appropriate
to do. Most students find the conflict in their personal relationships already
quite stressful; thus, conflict in their organizations can become an even greater
problem. Those who have a lower tolerance level for anxiety often choose to leave
the organization.
Why do we shy away from dealing with conflict? It is because many of us were raised
to believe that conflict is something to be avoided, an experience of failure.
However, conflict doesn't have to lead to failure, defeat, separation or termination
of a relationship. We all come to see the world in different ways, and we have
different ideas about what's best for us and what's best for our group. Recognizing
this can help free us from the negative conclusion that conflict is a signal of
failure. It is actually a signal that change is needed and possible.
Ability to manage conflict is probably one of the most important social skills
an individual can possess. This section is designed to help you acquire this skill.
Specifically, it will offer information about:
- Raising your consciousness of
the different ways in which people deal with conflict
- Increasing the awareness of your
own style of conflict management
- A constructive method of conflict
management which will not only lead to greater satisfaction of both parties
involved, but also promote growth and development of your group
There are several STYLES OF CONFLICT
MANAGEMENT that people use, some of which are more effective than others.
COMPETING - An individual pursues his/her own concerns at the other person's expense.
This is a power-oriented mode, in which one uses whatever power seems appropriate
to win one's own position -- one's ability to argue, one's rank, economic sanctions.
Competing might mean "standing up for your rights," defending a position which
you believe correct, or simply trying to win.
ACCOMMODATING - The opposite of competing. When accommodating, an individual neglects
his/her own concerns to satisfy the concerns of the other person; there is an
element of self-sacrifice in this mode. Accommodating might take the form of selfless
generosity or charity, obeying another person's orders when one would prefer not
to, or yielding to another's point of view.
AVOIDING - The individual does not immediately pursue his/her own concerns or
those of the other person. S/he does not address the conflict. Avoiding might
take the form of diplomatically sidestepping an issue, postponing an issue until
a better time, or simply withdrawing from a threatening situation.
COMPROMISING - The objective is to find some expedient, mutually acceptable solution
which partially satisfies both parties. It falls on a middle ground between competing
and accommodating. Compromising gives up more than competing but less than accommodating.
Likewise, it addresses an issue more directly than avoiding, but doesn't explore
it in as much depth as collaborating. Compromising might mean splitting the difference,
exchanging concessions, or seeking a quick middle-ground position.
COLLABORATING - The opposite of avoiding. collaborating involves an attempt to
work with the other person to find some solution which fully satisfies the concerns
of both persons. It means digging into an issue to identify the underlying concerns
of the two individuals and to find a solution which meets both sets of concerns.
This is clearly the most effective approach of conflict management. Specifically
it will produce the following results:
- Both sides win
- Satisfaction
- Mutual respect
- Both parties feel enriched rather
than belittled
- Continuing effort of both parties
HOW TO USE THE COLLABORATING
APPROACH (WIN-WIN NEGOTIATION) TO DEAL WITH CONFLICT IN STUDENT ORGANIZATIONS.
DIAGNOSIS is the starting point - determining the nature of the conflict.
Is the issue a value conflict? It is extremely difficult to negotiate when the
conflict is in the philosophical arena. An example: a dispute over whether alcohol
should be prohibited in a fundraising dance.
Is the issue a difference of expectations of each other? Understanding this type
of conflict lies in the fact that each of us have different expectations which
grow out of our experiences with the organization. Therefore, when we interact
with others whose expectations have grown out of their own unique experiences
with the organization, conflict arises.
INITIATION is the second step
The most effective way to confront another in a conflict situation is to state
the tangible effect the conflict has on you. Example: "We have a concern in our
committee. Due to your stand on keeping a low budget for the officer transition
retreat, we are unable to have the retreat off campus, which is the desire of
most members."
ACTIVE LISTENING is the third step - Negotiators must be capable of hearing the
other's point of view.
- While listening, do not think
about what to reply in order to persuade.
- Argument-provoking replies should
be avoided.
- Active listening involves paraphrasing
or restating what the other says. Idea or content should be considered as
well as feeling.
PROBLEM-SOLVING is the final step
- Clarify the problem -- after
the above steps, each party should have a clear idea about what is the tangible
issue.
- Talk about what's needed/wanted
(be clear on facts and information).
- Generate a list of possible solutions.
While doing this, let go of the solutions that you thought you had. Be creative!
The best negotiator makes the other side feel good.
- Start by thinking, "How can I
make the other side happy?".
- Decide together on the best solution
acceptable to all parties. Use consensus decision making skills. Don't try
to persuade or coerce.
- Plan the implementation of the
solution. Make assignments of the who, what, where, when and how.
- Plan an evaluation or review
of the solution after a specified period of time.
All five styles of conflict management
obviously have advantages and disadvantages. When dealing with conflict in personal
relationships, any of these types may be useful and necessary in certain situations.
The last style, collaboration, however, is highly recommended for dealing with
conflict in student organizations. It has the most promise of resulting in something
satisfactory to both parties. People often feel proud of themselves, and feel
a sense of personal power when they use this method. It's a sign of integrity
and self-confidence when one is able to use this method with patience regardless
of how difficult the situation may be.
TWO ISSUES WHICH YOU MIGHT HAVE TO DEAL WITH WHEN CONFRONTING A CONFLICT:
People who won't negotiate:
Some people refuse to negotiate because they want to protect their special interests
or privileges. Here are a few steps to take in dealing with such people:
- Start to negotiate anyway
- Explain why it is in their interest
to negotiate, why it is worthwhile to deal with the problems existing between
you
- Talk about problems that are
theirs and how the collaboration will help them solve them
- Make it their problem. For example:
bring to their attention the joint image that your two sub-groups project
for the organization
When trust is an issue:
Here are a few suggestions for this problem:
- Be trustworthy, doing what you
said you'd do
- Find a higher value that you
both agree on. For example: you both want to project a positive image
- Listen
- Make an agreement in such a way
that you know when it is carried out
- Start small
- There are people who simply can't/won't
trust you, but do your best anyway
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A retreat is a seclusion of contemplation.
It is a time an organization can use to accomplish one or several goals.
ADVANTAGES OF A RETREAT
- enhances experiences
- eliminates daily distractions
- fosters informality (recreation)
- creates shared experiences
- psychological impact - it is
important enough to take time to do it!
- maximizes participation
PLANNING A RETREAT
In order to ensure the retreat will be a positive experience for everyone involved,
there are several issues to keep in mind while planning.
Goals--the first thing to do is to decide the goals of the retreat. Participants
should know why they are there and what to expect to accomplish. Possible goals
include:
- team building/unity/awareness
- training
- communication
- problem-solving
- socializing
- learning
- orienting
- sense of community
Funding/costs
budget
transportation
set up car pools, duplicate directions if necessary
food/drink
- If eating in a restaurant, make reservations; ordering banquet style may get you
a special rate.
- If cooking meals, assign people to buy food, cook, serve and clean up.
- Order wholesale for large groups; find out what kitchen arrangements are available
sleeping arrangements
one overnight retreat is usually sufficient to achieve your goals.
recreation
plan activities for "free time"; new games and books are a great resource decide
what equipment you will need
Location - See section on Retreat Sites
Who to include - Those necessary to accomplish goals
- full time staff
- consultants (if part of workshops or exercises)
- all members
- executive members
- committee chairs
REMEMBER: PEOPLE HELP SUPPORT WHAT THEY CREATE!
Length and Timing - How much time is available and necessary to accomplish goals?
football Saturdays and mid-terms are NOT good times
Workshops/Exercises
Who could best facilitate?
Qualities of a good facilitator
- Perception - ability to clearly
assess a situation
- Listening skills - must be able
to listen carefully and remember what s/he has heard
- Interpretation and summarization
abilities - should be able to clearly and concisely articulate what has been
said by others
- Respected by group
- Concerned about group
An officer of the organization is not
necessarily the best choice for facilitator; sometimes, having a member or several
members get involved in facilitating part or parts of the retreat can have a positive
effect. Student Life staff are available to help plan or facilitate the retreat.
Formats
There are several different types of workshop/exercise formats that work well
at retreats. Student Life staff are available to help decide what format(s) would
best fit your group.
Agenda
Make sure every minute is planned ahead of time Everyone should receive a copy
of the agenda
Clean-Up
Be sure retreat site is left clean and orderly Assign some of these duties to
everyone
Possible Committee Assignment
- Transportation
- Food and Refreshments
- Recreation
- Agenda
- Clean-Up
CALENDAR FOR PLANNING A RETREAT
The importance of giving yourself a sufficient amount of time to plan ahead for
a retreat cannot be stressed enough. The following calendar should give you an
idea of when to do what, so that you will not be rushed at the last minute.
- At least two months in advance,
you should: Decide on the exact date and make sure that there are no major
conflicts Reserve your retreat site Appoint committee heads to be in charge
of particular parts of the retreat
- At least one month in advance,
you should: Determine the format of the retreat Contact any outside resource
people
Two weeks in advance, you should:
- Send letters to all your members
giving them necessary information concerning costs, travel arrangements, what
to bring, etc.
- Duplicate agendas, maps, and
any other hand-outs needed
- Round up any equipment (slide
projectors, etc.) or visual aids that you might need
- Make final arrangements for meals
if you're having to provide your own (who is to buy what, who will cook, etc.)
One week in advance, you should:
- Contact the retreat site to finalize
arrangements
- Have the final committee meetings
and be sure all people in charge know what they are responsible for
- Make a checklist of who is to
bring what
The day before the retreat, you should:
- Check with the committee heads
for last-minute problems
- Rest, so that you will be fresh
and enthusiastic for the retreat!
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Picking an appropriate location for
your organization's retreat or conference can make all the difference between
a not-so-good event and a successful one. Knowing what your group needs before
you start facility hunting can help to narrow down the choices. You may not be
able to find exactly what you are looking for but it's a good idea to start looking
for a retreat or conference site early, especially if your event is planned during
a busy portion of the year.
Facilities and their availability tend to change; don't hesitate to call sites
and question the specifics of what is available to your group. Our list of sites
is by no means all-inclusive but should give you a start on your conference or
retreat site search. In addition to this section, the Student Activities Committee
maintains a file of brochures from retreat and conference centers. We encourage
you to consult this file if you would like more information about a retreat or
conference site.
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